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Monday, 2 February 2015
Wednesday, 3 July 2013
pritam tare
History of software engineering
When the first digital computers appeared in the early 1940s,[9]
the instructions to make them operate were wired into the machine.
Practitioners quickly realized that this design was not flexible and
came up with the "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. Thus the division between "hardware" and "software" began with abstraction being used to deal with the complexity of computing.
Programming languages started to appear in the 1950s and this was also another major step in abstraction. Major languages such as Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL were released in the late 1950s to deal with scientific, algorithmic, and business problems respectively. E.W. Dijkstra wrote his seminal paper, "Go To Statement Considered Harmful",[10] in 1968 and David Parnas introduced the key concept of modularity and information hiding in 1972[11] to help programmers deal with the ever increasing complexity of software systems. A software system for managing the hardware called an operating system was also introduced, most notably by Unix in 1969. In 1967, the Simula language introduced the object-oriented programming paradigm.
These advances in software were met with more advances in computer hardware. In the mid 1970s, the microcomputer was introduced, making it economical for hobbyists to obtain a computer and write software for it. This in turn led to the now famous Personal Computer (PC). The Software Development Life Cycle
or SDLC was also starting to appear as a consensus for centralized
construction of software in the mid 1980s. The late 1970s and early
1980s saw the introduction of several new Simula-inspired
object-oriented programming languages, including Smalltalk, Objective-C, and C++.
Open-source software started to appear in the early 90s in the form of Linux and other software introducing the "bazaar" or decentralized style of constructing software.[12] Then the World Wide Web and the popularization of the Internet hit in the mid 90s, changing the engineering of software once again. Distributed systems gained sway as a way to design systems, and the Java programming language was introduced with its own virtual machine as another step in abstraction. Programmers collaborated and wrote the Agile Manifesto, which favored more lightweight processes to create cheaper and more timely software.
The current definition of software engineering is still being
debated by practitioners today as they struggle to come up with ways to
produce software that is "cheaper, better, faster". Cost reduction has been a primary focus of the IT industry since the 1990s. Total cost of ownership
represents the costs of more than just acquisition. It includes things
like productivity impediments, upkeep efforts, and resources needed to
support infrastructure.
pritam tare
Computer is a
machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions.
Technically,
a computer is a programmable machine. The ability to store and execute
lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely
versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. This means it can
execute a programmed list of instructions and respond to new
instructions that it is given. When referring to a desktop model, the
term "computer" technically only refers to the computer itself -- not
the monitor, keyboard, and mouse. Still, it is acceptable to refer to
everything together as the computer. If you want to be really technical,
the box that holds the computer is called the "system unit."
Some
of the major parts of a personal computer (or PC) include the
motherboard, CPU, memory (or RAM), hard drive, and video card. While
personal computers are by far the most common type of computers today,
there are several other types of computers. For example, a
"minicomputer" is a powerful computer that can support many users at
once. A "mainframe" is a large, high-powered computer that can perform
billions of calculations from multiple sources at one time. Finally, a
"supercomputer" is a machine that can process billions of instructions a
second and is used to calculate extremely complex calculations.
There are five generations of computer that are given below
First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes
The
first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very
expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.
First
generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched
cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The
UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing
devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a
business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors
Transistors
replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see
widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far
superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their
first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a
great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast
improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still
relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language
to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to
specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were
also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and
FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to
magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits
The
development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on
silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the
speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead
of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an
operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors
The
microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands
of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in
the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of
the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory
to input/output controls—on a single chip.
In
1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984
Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the
realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As
these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked
together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of
the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of
GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
Monday, 22 April 2013
Computer Engineering provides the opportunity to work in the continually changing information technology sector. With the development of faster hardware components, new communication systems and software there is a need for computer engineers. Computer engineering students study the design of digital hardware and software systems. Computer Engineering encompasses a wide range of topics including operating systems, computer architecture, computer networks, robotics, artificial intelligence, and computer-aided design.
An important area within computing engineering is the development of embedded system devices such as cell phones, digital audio players, digital video recorders, alarm systems, x-ray machines, and laser surgical tools, all require integration of hardware and embedded software, and are all the result of computer engineering.
Computer Engineering is a difficult major but it's a major that's in demand. There are also many programs to choose from. Computer Systems Institute offers a variety of classes for more computer education. Software engineering companies, telecommunications firms, designers of digital hardware, and many other business enterprises hire Computer Engineering majors right out of college and pay them well.
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